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Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei
Karl Marx
(1848)

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Manifesto of the Communist Party Le manifeste du Parti Communiste
I. Bourgeois and ProletariansI. Bourgeois et prolétaires
The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.

Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.

In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, plebeians, slaves; in the Middle Ages, feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations.

The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones.

Our epoch, the epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinct feature: it has simplified class antagonisms. Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other — Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.

From the serfs of the Middle Ages sprang the chartered burghers of the earliest towns. From these burgesses the first elements of the bourgeoisie were developed.

The discovery of America, the rounding of the Cape, opened up fresh ground for the rising bourgeoisie. The East-Indian and Chinese markets, the colonisation of America, trade with the colonies, the increase in the means of exchange and in commodities generally, gave to commerce, to navigation, to industry, an impulse never before known, and thereby, to the revolutionary element in the tottering feudal society, a rapid development.

The feudal system of industry, in which industrial production was monopolised by closed guilds, now no longer sufficed for the growing wants of the new markets. The manufacturing system took its place. The guild-masters were pushed on one side by the manufacturing middle class; division of labour between the different corporate guilds vanished in the face of division of labour in each single workshop.

Meantime the markets kept ever growing, the demand ever rising. Even manufacturer no longer sufficed. Thereupon, steam and machinery revolutionised industrial production. The place of manufacture was taken by the giant, Modern Industry; the place of the industrial middle class by industrial millionaires, the leaders of the whole industrial armies, the modern bourgeois.

Modern industry has established the world market, for which the discovery of America paved the way. This market has given an immense development to commerce, to navigation, to communication by land.

This development has, in its turn, reacted on the extension of industry; and in proportion as industry, commerce, navigation, railways extended, in the same proportion the bourgeoisie developed, increased its capital, and pushed into the background every class handed down from the Middle Ages.

We see, therefore, how the modern bourgeoisie is itself the product of a long course of development, of a series of revolutions in the modes of production and of exchange.

Each step in the development of the bourgeoisie was accompanied by a corresponding political advance of that class.

An oppressed class under the sway of the feudal nobility, an armed and self-governing association in the medieval commune: here independent urban republic (as in Italy and Germany); there taxable “third estate” of the monarchy (as in France); afterwards, in the period of manufacturing proper, serving either the semi-feudal or the absolute monarchy as a counterpoise against the nobility, and, in fact, cornerstone of the great monarchies in general, the bourgeoisie has at last, since the establishment of Modern Industry and of the world market, conquered for itself, in the modern representative State, exclusive political sway.

The executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie.

The bourgeoisie, historically, has played a most revolutionary part.

The bourgeoisie, wherever it has got the upper hand, has put an end to all feudal, patriarchal, idyllic relations. It has pitilessly torn asunder the motley feudal ties that bound man to his “natural superiors”, and has left remaining no other nexus between man and man than naked self-interest, than callous “cash payment”.

It has drowned the most heavenly ecstasies of religious fervour, of chivalrous enthusiasm, of philistine sentimentalism, in the icy water of egotistical calculation. It has resolved personal worth into exchange value, and in place of the numberless indefeasible chartered freedoms, has set up that single, unconscionable freedom — Free Trade.

In one word, for exploitation, veiled by religious and political illusions, it has substituted naked, shameless, direct, brutal exploitation.

The bourgeoisie has stripped of its halo every occupation hitherto honoured and looked up to with reverent awe. It has converted the physician, the lawyer, the priest, the poet, the man of science, into its paid wage labourers.

The bourgeoisie has torn away from the family its sentimental veil, and has reduced the family relation to a mere money relation.

The bourgeoisie has disclosed how it came to pass that the brutal display of vigour in the Middle Ages, which reactionaries so much admire, found its fitting complement in the most slothful indolence. It has been the first to show what man’s activity can bring about. It has accomplished wonders far surpassing Egyptian pyramids, Roman aqueducts, and Gothic cathedrals; it has conducted expeditions that put in the shade all former Exoduses of nations and crusades.

The bourgeoisie cannot exist without constantly revolutionising the instruments of production, and thereby the relations of production, and with them the whole relations of society.

Conservation of the old modes of production in unaltered form, was, on the contrary, the first condition of existence for all earlier industrial classes. Constant revolutionising of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones.

All fixed, fast-frozen relations, with their train of ancient and venerable prejudices and opinions, are swept away, all new-formed ones become antiquated before they can ossify. All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned, and man is at last compelled to face with sober senses his real conditions of life, and his relations with his kind.

The need of a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the entire surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connexions everywhere.

The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world market given a cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every country. To the great chagrin of Reactionists, it has drawn from under the feet of industry the national ground on which it stood.

All old-established national industries have been destroyed or are daily being destroyed. They are dislodged by new industries, whose introduction becomes a life and death question for all civilised nations, by industries that no longer work up indigenous raw material, but raw material drawn from the remotest zones; industries whose products are consumed, not only at home, but in every quarter of the globe.

In place of the old wants, satisfied by the production of the country, we find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the products of distant lands and climes. In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal inter-dependence of nations.

And as in material, so also in intellectual production. The intellectual creations of individual nations become common property. National one-sidedness and narrow-mindedness become more and more impossible, and from the numerous national and local literatures, there arises a world literature.

The bourgeoisie, by the rapid improvement of all instruments of production, by the immensely facilitated means of communication, draws all, even the most barbarian, nations into civilisation. The cheap prices of commodities are the heavy artillery with which it batters down all Chinese walls, with which it forces the barbarians’ intensely obstinate hatred of foreigners to capitulate.

It compels all nations, on pain of extinction, to adopt the bourgeois mode of production; it compels them to introduce what it calls civilisation into their midst, i.e., to become bourgeois themselves. In one word, it creates a world after its own image.

The bourgeoisie has subjected the country to the rule of the towns. It has created enormous cities, has greatly increased the urban population as compared with the rural, and has thus rescued a considerable part of the population from the idiocy of rural life.

Just as it has made the country dependent on the towns, so it has made barbarian and semi-barbarian countries dependent on the civilised ones, nations of peasants on nations of bourgeois, the East on the West.

The bourgeoisie keeps more and more doing away with the scattered state of the population, of the means of production, and of property. It has agglomerated population, centralised the means of production, and has concentrated property in a few hands. The necessary consequence of this was political centralisation.

Independent, or but loosely connected provinces, with separate interests, laws, governments, and systems of taxation, became lumped together into one nation, with one government, one code of laws, one national class-interest, one frontier, and one customs-tariff.

The bourgeoisie, during its rule of scarce one hundred years, has created more massive and more colossal productive forces than have all preceding generations together.

Subjection of Nature’s forces to man, machinery, application of chemistry to industry and agriculture, steam-navigation, railways, electric telegraphs, clearing of whole continents for cultivation, canalisation of rivers, whole populations conjured out of the ground — what earlier century had even a presentiment that such productive forces slumbered in the lap of social labour?

We see then: the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up, were generated in feudal society.

At a certain stage in the development of these means of production and of exchange, the conditions under which feudal society produced and exchanged, the feudal organisation of agriculture and manufacturing industry, in one word, the feudal relations of property became no longer compatible with the already developed productive forces; they became so many fetters. They had to be burst asunder; they were burst asunder.

Into their place stepped free competition, accompanied by a social and political constitution adapted in it, and the economic and political sway of the bourgeois class.

A similar movement is going on before our own eyes. Modern bourgeois society, with its relations of production, of exchange and of property, a society that has conjured up such gigantic means of production and of exchange, is like the sorcerer who is no longer able to control the powers of the nether world whom he has called up by his spells.

For many a decade past the history of industry and commerce is but the history of the revolt of modern productive forces against modern conditions of production, against the property relations that are the conditions for the existence of the bourgeois and of its rule.

It is enough to mention the commercial crises that by their periodical return put the existence of the entire bourgeois society on its trial, each time more threateningly. In these crises, a great part not only of the existing products, but also of the previously created productive forces, are periodically destroyed.

In these crises, there breaks out an epidemic that, in all earlier epochs, would have seemed an absurdity — the epidemic of over-production. Society suddenly finds itself put back into a state of momentary barbarism; it appears as if a famine, a universal war of devastation, had cut off the supply of every means of subsistence; industry and commerce seem to be destroyed; and why? Because there is too much civilisation, too much means of subsistence, too much industry, too much commerce.

The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bourgeois property; on the contrary, they have become too powerful for these conditions, by which they are fettered, and so soon as they overcome these fetters, they bring disorder into the whole of bourgeois society, endanger the existence of bourgeois property.

The conditions of bourgeois society are too narrow to comprise the wealth created by them. And how does the bourgeoisie get over these crises? On the one hand by enforced destruction of a mass of productive forces; on the other, by the conquest of new markets, and by the more thorough exploitation of the old ones. That is to say, by paving the way for more extensive and more destructive crises, and by diminishing the means whereby crises are prevented.

The weapons with which the bourgeoisie felled feudalism to the ground are now turned against the bourgeoisie itself.

But not only has the bourgeoisie forged the weapons that bring death to itself; it has also called into existence the men who are to wield those weapons — the modern working class — the proletarians.

In proportion as the bourgeoisie, i.e., capital, is developed, in the same proportion is the proletariat, the modern working class, developed — a class of labourers, who live only so long as they find work, and who find work only so long as their labour increases capital. These labourers, who must sell themselves piecemeal, are a commodity, like every other article of commerce, and are consequently exposed to all the vicissitudes of competition, to all the fluctuations of the market.

Owing to the extensive use of machinery, and to the division of labour, the work of the proletarians has lost all individual character, and, consequently, all charm for the workman.

He becomes an appendage of the machine, and it is only the most simple, most monotonous, and most easily acquired knack, that is required of him. Hence, the cost of production of a workman is restricted, almost entirely, to the means of subsistence that he requires for maintenance, and for the propagation of his race.

But the price of a commodity, and therefore also of labour, is equal to its cost of production. In proportion, therefore, as the repulsiveness of the work increases, the wage decreases. Nay more, in proportion as the use of machinery and division of labour increases, in the same proportion the burden of toil also increases, whether by prolongation of the working hours, by the increase of the work exacted in a given time or by increased speed of machinery, etc.

Modern Industry has converted the little workshop of the patriarchal master into the great factory of the industrial capitalist. Masses of labourers, crowded into the factory, are organised like soldiers. As privates of the industrial army they are placed under the command of a perfect hierarchy of officers and sergeants.

Not only are they slaves of the bourgeois class, and of the bourgeois State; they are daily and hourly enslaved by the machine, by the overlooker, and, above all, by the individual bourgeois manufacturer himself. The more openly this despotism proclaims gain to be its end and aim, the more petty, the more hateful and the more embittering it is.

The less the skill and exertion of strength implied in manual labour, in other words, the more modern industry becomes developed, the more is the labour of men superseded by that of women. Differences of age and sex have no longer any distinctive social validity for the working class. All are instruments of labour, more or less expensive to use, according to their age and sex.

No sooner is the exploitation of the labourer by the manufacturer, so far, at an end, that he receives his wages in cash, than he is set upon by the other portions of the bourgeoisie, the landlord, the shopkeeper, the pawnbroker, etc.

The lower strata of the middle class — the small tradespeople, shopkeepers, and retired tradesmen generally, the handicraftsmen and peasants — all these sink gradually into the proletariat, partly because their diminutive capital does not suffice for the scale on which Modern Industry is carried on, and is swamped in the competition with the large capitalists, partly because their specialised skill is rendered worthless by new methods of production. Thus the proletariat is recruited from all classes of the population.

The proletariat goes through various stages of development. With its birth begins its struggle with the bourgeoisie.

At first the contest is carried on by individual labourers, then by the workpeople of a factory, then by the operative of one trade, in one locality, against the individual bourgeois who directly exploits them.

They direct their attacks not against the bourgeois conditions of production, but against the instruments of production themselves; they destroy imported wares that compete with their labour, they smash to pieces machinery, they set factories ablaze, they seek to restore by force the vanished status of the workman of the Middle Ages.

At this stage, the labourers still form an incoherent mass scattered over the whole country, and broken up by their mutual competition. If anywhere they unite to form more compact bodies, this is not yet the consequence of their own active union, but of the union of the bourgeoisie, which class, in order to attain its own political ends, is compelled to set the whole proletariat in motion, and is moreover yet, for a time, able to do so.

At this stage, therefore, the proletarians do not fight their enemies, but the enemies of their enemies, the remnants of absolute monarchy, the landowners, the non-industrial bourgeois, the petty bourgeois. Thus, the whole historical movement is concentrated in the hands of the bourgeoisie; every victory so obtained is a victory for the bourgeoisie.

But with the development of industry, the proletariat not only increases in number; it becomes concentrated in greater masses, its strength grows, and it feels that strength more.

The various interests and conditions of life within the ranks of the proletariat are more and more equalised, in proportion as machinery obliterates all distinctions of labour, and nearly everywhere reduces wages to the same low level.

The growing competition among the bourgeois, and the resulting commercial crises, make the wages of the workers ever more fluctuating. The increasing improvement of machinery, ever more rapidly developing, makes their livelihood more and more precarious; the collisions between individual workmen and individual bourgeois take more and more the character of collisions between two classes.

Thereupon, the workers begin to form combinations (Trades’ Unions) against the bourgeois; they club together in order to keep up the rate of wages; they found permanent associations in order to make provision beforehand for these occasional revolts. Here and there, the contest breaks out into riots.

Now and then the workers are victorious, but only for a time. The real fruit of their battles lies, not in the immediate result, but in the ever expanding union of the workers.

This union is helped on by the improved means of communication that are created by modern industry, and that place the workers of different localities in contact with one another. It was just this contact that was needed to centralise the numerous local struggles, all of the same character, into one national struggle between classes.

But every class struggle is a political struggle. And that union, to attain which the burghers of the Middle Ages, with their miserable highways, required centuries, the modern proletarian, thanks to railways, achieve in a few years.

This organisation of the proletarians into a class, and, consequently into a political party, is continually being upset again by the competition between the workers themselves. But it ever rises up again, stronger, firmer, mightier. It compels legislative recognition of particular interests of the workers, by taking advantage of the divisions among the bourgeoisie itself. Thus, the ten-hours’ bill in England was carried.

Altogether collisions between the classes of the old society further, in many ways, the course of development of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie finds itself involved in a constant battle. At first with the aristocracy; later on, with those portions of the bourgeoisie itself, whose interests have become antagonistic to the progress of industry; at all time with the bourgeoisie of foreign countries.

In all these battles, it sees itself compelled to appeal to the proletariat, to ask for help, and thus, to drag it into the political arena. The bourgeoisie itself, therefore, supplies the proletariat with its own elements of political and general education, in other words, it furnishes the proletariat with weapons for fighting the bourgeoisie.

Further, as we have already seen, entire sections of the ruling class are, by the advance of industry, precipitated into the proletariat, or are at least threatened in their conditions of existence. These also supply the proletariat with fresh elements of enlightenment and progress.

Finally, in times when the class struggle nears the decisive hour, the progress of dissolution going on within the ruling class, in fact within the whole range of old society, assumes such a violent, glaring character, that a small section of the ruling class cuts itself adrift, and joins the revolutionary class, the class that holds the future in its hands.

Just as, therefore, at an earlier period, a section of the nobility went over to the bourgeoisie, so now a portion of the bourgeoisie goes over to the proletariat, and in particular, a portion of the bourgeois ideologists, who have raised themselves to the level of comprehending theoretically the historical movement as a whole.

Of all the classes that stand face to face with the bourgeoisie today, the proletariat alone is a really revolutionary class. The other classes decay and finally disappear in the face of Modern Industry; the proletariat is its special and essential product.

The lower middle class, the small manufacturer, the shopkeeper, the artisan, the peasant, all these fight against the bourgeoisie, to save from extinction their existence as fractions of the middle class. They are therefore not revolutionary, but conservative. Nay more, they are reactionary, for they try to roll back the wheel of history.

If by chance, they are revolutionary, they are only so in view of their impending transfer into the proletariat; they thus defend not their present, but their future interests, they desert their own standpoint to place themselves at that of the proletariat.

The “dangerous class”, [lumpenproletariat] the social scum, that passively rotting mass thrown off by the lowest layers of the old society, may, here and there, be swept into the movement by a proletarian revolution; its conditions of life, however, prepare it far more for the part of a bribed tool of reactionary intrigue.

In the condition of the proletariat, those of old society at large are already virtually swamped. The proletarian is without property; his relation to his wife and children has no longer anything in common with the bourgeois family relations; modern industry labour, modern subjection to capital, the same in England as in France, in America as in Germany, has stripped him of every trace of national character.

Law, morality, religion, are to him so many bourgeois prejudices, behind which lurk in ambush just as many bourgeois interests.

All the preceding classes that got the upper hand sought to fortify their already acquired status by subjecting society at large to their conditions of appropriation.

The proletarians cannot become masters of the productive forces of society, except by abolishing their own previous mode of appropriation, and thereby also every other previous mode of appropriation. They have nothing of their own to secure and to fortify; their mission is to destroy all previous securities for, and insurances of, individual property.

All previous historical movements were movements of minorities, or in the interest of minorities. The proletarian movement is the self-conscious, independent movement of the immense majority, in the interest of the immense majority.

The proletariat, the lowest stratum of our present society, cannot stir, cannot raise itself up, without the whole superincumbent strata of official society being sprung into the air.

Though not in substance, yet in form, the struggle of the proletariat with the bourgeoisie is at first a national struggle. The proletariat of each country must, of course, first of all settle matters with its own bourgeoisie.

In depicting the most general phases of the development of the proletariat, we traced the more or less veiled civil war, raging within existing society, up to the point where that war breaks out into open revolution, and where the violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie lays the foundation for the sway of the proletariat.

Hitherto, every form of society has been based, as we have already seen, on the antagonism of oppressing and oppressed classes. But in order to oppress a class, certain conditions must be assured to it under which it can, at least, continue its slavish existence.

The serf, in the period of serfdom, raised himself to membership in the commune, just as the petty bourgeois, under the yoke of the feudal absolutism, managed to develop into a bourgeois.

The modern labourer, on the contrary, instead of rising with the process of industry, sinks deeper and deeper below the conditions of existence of his own class. He becomes a pauper, and pauperism develops more rapidly than population and wealth.

And here it becomes evident, that the bourgeoisie is unfit any longer to be the ruling class in society, and to impose its conditions of existence upon society as an over-riding law. It is unfit to rule because it is incompetent to assure an existence to its slave within his slavery, because it cannot help letting him sink into such a state, that it has to feed him, instead of being fed by him. Society can no longer live under this bourgeoisie, in other words, its existence is no longer compatible with society.

The essential conditions for the existence and for the sway of the bourgeois class is the formation and augmentation of capital; the condition for capital is wage-labour. Wage-labour rests exclusively on competition between the labourers.

The advance of industry, whose involuntary promoter is the bourgeoisie, replaces the isolation of the labourers, due to competition, by the revolutionary combination, due to association.

The development of Modern Industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products. What the bourgeoisie therefore produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.


L’histoire de toute société jusqu’à nos jours n’a été que l’histoire de luttes de classes.

Homme libre et esclave, patricien et plébéien, baron et serf, maître de jurande et compagnon, en un mot oppresseurs et opprimés, en opposition constante, ont mené une guerre ininterrompue, tantôt ouverte, tantôt dissimulée, une guerre qui finissait toujours soit par une transformation révolutionnaire de la société tout entière, soit par la destruction des deux classes en lutte.

Dans les premières époques historiques, nous constatons presque partout une organisation complète de la société en classes distinctes, une échelle graduée de conditions sociales. Dans la Rome antique, nous trouvons des patriciens, des chevaliers, des plébéiens, des esclaves; au moyen âge, des seigneurs, des vassaux, des maîtres de corporation, des compagnons, des serfs et, de plus, dans chacune de ces classes, une hiérarchie particulière.

La société bourgeoise moderne, élevée sur les ruines de la société féodale, n’a pas aboli les antagonismes de classes Elle n’a fait que substituer de nouvelles classes, de nouvelles conditions d’oppression, de nouvelles formes de lutte à celles d’autrefois.

Cependant, le caractère distinctif de notre époque, de l’époque de la bourgeoisie, est d’avoir simplifié les antagonismes de classes. La société se divise de plus en deux vastes camps ennemis, en deux grandes classes diamétralement opposées: la bourgeoisie et le prolétariat.

Des serfs du moyen âge naquirent les bourgeois des premières agglomérations urbaines; de cette population municipale sortirent les premiers éléments de la bourgeoisie.

La découverte de l’Amérique, la circumnavigation de l’Afrique offrirent à la bourgeoisie naissante un nouveau champ d’action. Les marchés des Indes Orientales et de la Chine, la colonisation de l’Amérique, le commerce colonial, la multiplication des moyens d’échange et, en général, des marchandises donnèrent un essor jusqu’alors inconnu au négoce, à la navigation, à l’industrie et assurèrent, en conséquence, un développement rapide à l’élément révolutionnaire de la société féodale en dissolution.

L’ancien mode d’exploitation féodal ou corporatif de l’industrie ne suffisait plus aux besoins qui croissaient sans cesse à mesure que s’ouvraient de nouveaux marchés. La manufacture prit sa place. La moyenne bourgeoisie industrielle supplanta les maîtres de jurande; la division du travail entre les différentes corporations céda la place à la division du travail au sein de l’atelier même.

Mais les marchés s’agrandissaient sans cesse: la demande croissait toujours. La manufacture, à son tour, devint insuffisante. Alors, la vapeur et la machine révolutionnèrent la production industrielle. La grande industrie moderne supplanta la manufacture; la moyenne bourgeoisie industrielle céda la place aux millionnaires de l’industrie, aux chefs de véritables armées industrielles, aux bourgeois modernes.

La grande industrie a créé le marché mondial, préparé par la découverte de l’Amérique. Le marché mondial accéléra prodigieusement le développement du commerce, de la navigation, des voies de communication.

Ce développement réagit à son tour sur l’extension de l’industrie; et, au fur et a mesure que l’industrie, le commerce, la navigation, les chemins de fer se développaient, la bourgeoisie grandissait, décuplant ses capitaux et refoulant à l’arrière-plan les classes léguées par le moyen âge.

La bourgeoisie, nous le voyons, est elle-même le produit d’un long développement, d’une série de révolutions dans le mode de production et les moyens de communication.

A chaque étape de l’évolution que parcourait la bourgeoisie correspondait pour elle un progrès politique.

Classe opprimée par le despotisme féodal, association armée s’administrant elle-même dans la commune, ici, république urbaine indépendante; là, tiers état taillable et corvéable de la monarchie, puis, durant la période manufacturière. contrepoids de la noblesse dans la monarchie féodale ou absolue, pierre angulaire des grandes monarchies, la bourgeoisie, depuis l’établissement de la grande industrie et du marché mondial, s’est finalement emparée de la souveraineté politique exclusive dans l’Etat représentatif moderne.

Le gouvernement moderne n’est qu’un comité qui gère les affaires communes de la classe bourgeoise tout entière.

La bourgeoisie a joué dans l’histoire un rôle éminemment révolutionnaire.

Partout où elle a conquis le pouvoir, elle a foulé aux pieds les relations féodales, patriarcales et idylliques. Tous les liens complexes et variés qui unissent l’homme féodal à ses “supérieurs naturels”, elle les a brisés sans pitié pour ne laisser subsister d’autre lien, entre l’homme et l’homme, que le froid intérêt, les dures exigences du “paiement au comptant”.

Elle a noyé les frissons sacrés de l’extase religieuse, de l’enthousiasme chevaleresque, de la sentimentalité petite-bourgeoise dans les eaux glacées du calcul égoïste. Elle a fait de la dignité personnelle une simple valeur d’échange; elle a substitué aux nombreuses libertés, si chèrement conquises, l’unique et impitoyable liberté du commerce.

En un mot, à la place de l’exploitation que masquaient les illusions religieuses et politiques, elle a mis une exploitation ouverte, éhontée, directe, brutale.

La bourgeoisie a dépouillé de leur auréole toutes les activités qui passaient jusque-là pour vénérables et qu’on considérait avec un saint respect. Le médecin, le juriste, le prêtre, le poète, le savant, elle en a fait des salariés à ses gages.

La bourgeoisie a déchiré le voile de sentimentalité qui recouvrait les relations de famille et les a réduites à n’être que de simples rapports d’argent.

La bourgeoisie a révélé comment la brutale manifestation de la force au moyen âge, si admirée de la réaction, trouva son complément naturel dans la paresse la plus crasse. C’est elle qui, la première, a fait voir ce dont est capable l’activité humaine. Elle a créé de tout autres merveilles que les pyramides d’Egypte, les aqueducs romains, les cathédrales gothiques; elle a mené à bien de tout autres expéditions que les invasions et les croisades.

La bourgeoisie ne peut exister sans révolutionner constamment les instruments de production, ce qui veut dire les rapports de production, c’est-à-dire l’ensemble des rapports sociaux.

Le maintien sans changement de l’ancien mode de production était, au contraire, pour toutes les classes industrielles antérieures, la condition première de leur existence. Ce bouleversement continuel de la production, ce constant ébranlement de tout le système social, cette agitation et cette insécurité perpétuelles distinguent l’époque bourgeoise de toutes les précédentes.

Tous les rapports sociaux, figés et couverts de rouille, avec leur cortège de conceptions et d’idées antiques et vénérables, se dissolvent; ceux qui les remplacent vieillissent avant d’avoir pu s’ossifier. Tout ce qui avait solidité et permanence s’en va en fumée, tout ce qui était sacré est profané, et les hommes sont forcés enfin d’envisager leurs conditions d’existence et leurs rapports réciproques avec des yeux désabusés.

Poussée par le besoin de débouchés toujours nouveaux, la bourgeoisie envahit le globe entier. Il lui faut s’implanter partout, exploiter partout, établir partout des relations.

Par l’exploitation du marché mondial, la bourgeoisie donne un caractère cosmopolite à la production et à la consommation de tous les pays. Au grand désespoir des réactionnaires, elle a enlevé à l’industrie sa base nationale.

Les vieilles industries nationales ont été détruites et le sont encore chaque jour. Elles sont supplantées par de nouvelles industries, dont l’adoption devient une question de vie ou de mort pour toutes les nations civilisées, industries qui n’emploient plus des matières premières indigènes, mais des matières premières venues des régions les plus lointaines, et dont les produits se consomment non seulement dans le pays même, mais dans toutes les parties du globe.

A la place des anciens besoins, satisfaits par les produits nationaux, naissent des besoins nouveaux, réclamant pour leur satisfaction les produits des contrées et des climats les plus lointains. A la place de l’ancien isolement des provinces et des nations se suffisant à elles-mêmes, se développent des relations universelles, une interdépendance universelle des nations.

Et ce qui est vrai de la production matérielle ne l’est pas moins des productions de l’esprit Les oeuvres intellectuelles d’une nation deviennent la propriété commune de toutes. L’étroitesse et l’exclusivisme nationaux deviennent de jour en jour plus impossibles et de la multiplicité des littératures nationales et locales naît une littérature universelle.

Par le rapide perfectionnement des instruments de production et l’amélioration infinie des moyens de communication, la bourgeoisie entraîne dans le courant de la civilisation jusqu’aux nations les plus barbares. Le bon marché de ses produits est la grosse artillerie qui bat en brèche toutes les murailles de Chine et contraint à la capitulation les barbares les plus opiniâtrement hostiles aux étrangers.

Sous peine de mort, elle force toutes les nations à adopter le mode bourgeois de production; elle les force à introduire chez elle la prétendue civilisation, c’est-à-dire à devenir bourgeoises. En un mot, elle se façonne un monde à son image.

La bourgeoisie a soumis la campagne à la ville. Elle a créé d’énormes cités; elle a prodigieusement augmenté la population des villes par rapport à celles des campagnes, et par là, elle a arraché une grande partie de la population à l’abrutissement de la vie des champs.

De même qu’elle a soumis la campagne à la ville, les pays barbares ou demi-barbares aux pays civilisés, elle a subordonné les peuples de paysans aux peuples de bourgeois, l’Orient à l’Occident.

La bourgeoisie supprime de plus en plus l’émiettement des moyens de production, de la propriété et de la population. Elle a aggloméré la population, centralisé les moyens de production et concentré la propriété dans un petit nombre de mains. La conséquence totale de ces changements a été la centralisation politique.

Des provinces indépendantes, tout juste fédérées entre elles, ayant des intérêts, des lois, des gouvernements, des tarifs douaniers différents, ont été réunies en une seule nation, avec un seul gouvernement, une seule loi, un seul intérêt national de classe, derrière un seul cordon douanier.

La bourgeoisie, au cours de sa domination de classe à peine séculaire, a créé des forces productives plus nombreuses; et plus colossales que l’avaient fait toutes les générations passées prises ensemble.

La domestication des forces de la nature, les machines, l’application de la chimie à l’industrie et à l’agriculture, la navigation à vapeur, les chemins de fer, les télégraphes électriques, le défrichement de continents entiers, la régularisation des fleuves, des populations entières jaillies du sol — quel siècle antérieur aurait soupçonné que de pareilles forces productives dorment au sein du travail social?

Voici donc ce que nous avons vu: les moyens de production et d’échange. sur la base desquels s’est édifiée la bourgeoise, furent créés à l’intérieur de la société féodale.

A un certain degré du développement de ces moyens de production et d’échange, les conditions dans lesquelles la société féodale produisait et échangeait, l’organisation féodale de l’agriculture et de la manufacture, en un mot le régime féodal de propriété, cessèrent de correspondre aux forces productives en plein développement. Ils entravaient la production au lieu de la faire progresser. Ils se transformèrent en autant de chaînes. Il fallait les briser. Et on les brisa.

A sa place s’éleva la libre concurrence, avec une constitution sociale et politique appropriée, avec la suprématie économique et politique de la classe bourgeoise.

Nous assistons aujourd’hui à un processus analogue. Les conditions bourgeoises de production et d’échange, le régime bourgeois de la propriété, la société bourgeoise moderne, qui a fait surgir de si puissants moyens de production et d’échange, ressemblent au magicien qui ne sait plus dominer les puissances infernales qu’il a évoquées.

Depuis des dizaines d’années, l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce n’est autre chose que l’histoire de la révolte des forces productives modernes contre les rapports modernes de production, contre le régime de propriété qui conditionnent l’existence de la bourgeoisie et sa domination.

Il suffit de mentionner les crises commerciales qui, par leur retour périodique, menacent de plus en plus l’existence de la société bourgeoise. Chaque crise détruit régulièrement non seulement une masse de produits déjà créés, mais encore une grande partie des forces productives déjà existantes elles-mêmes.

Une épidémie qui, à toute autre époque, eût semblé une absurdité, s’abat sur la société, — l’épidémie de la surproduction. La société se trouve subitement ramenée à un état de barbarie momentanée; on dirait qu’une famine, une guerre d’extermination lui ont coupé tous ses moyens de subsistance; l’industrie et le commerce semblent anéantis. Et pourquoi? Parce que la société a trop de civilisation, trop de moyens de subsistance, trop d’industrie, trop de commerce.

Les forces productives dont elle dispose ne favorisent plus le régime de la propriété bourgeoise; au contraire, elles sont devenues trop puissantes pour ce régime qui alors leur fait obstacle; et toutes les fois que les forces productives sociales triomphent de cet obstacle, elles précipitent dans le désordre la société bourgeoise tout entière et menacent l’existence de la propriété bourgeoise.

Le système bourgeois est devenu trop étroit pour contenir les richesses créées dans son sein. — Comment la bourgeoisie surmonte-t-elle ces crises? D’un côté, en détruisant par la violence une masse de forces productives; de l’autre, en conquérant de nouveaux marchés et en exploitant plus à fond les anciens. A quoi cela aboutit-il? A préparer des crises plus générales et plus formidables et à diminuer les moyens de les prévenir.

Les armes dont la bourgeoisie s’est servie pour abattre la féodalité se retournent aujourd’hui contre la bourgeoisie elle-même.

Mais la bourgeoisie n’a pas seulement forgé les armes qui la mettront à mort; elle a produit aussi les hommes qui manieront ces armes, les ouvriers modernes, les prolétaires.

A mesure que grandit la bourgeoisie, c’est-à-dire le capital, se développe aussi le prolétariat, la classe des ouvriers modernes qui ne vivent qu’à la condition de trouver du travail et qui n’en trouvent que si leur travail accroît le capital. Ces ouvriers, contraints de se vendre au jour le jour, sont une marchandise, un article de commerce comme un autre; ils sont exposés, par conséquent, à toutes les vicissitudes de la concurrence, à toutes les fluctuations du marché.

Le développement du machinisme et la division du travail, en faisant perdre au travail de l’ouvrier tout caractère d’autonomie, lui ont fait perdre tout attrait.

Le producteur devient un simple accessoire de la machine, on n’exige de lui que l’opération la plus simple, la plus monotone, la plus vite apprise. Par conséquent, ce que coûte l’ouvrier se réduit, à peu de chose près, au coût de ce qu’il lui faut pour s’entretenir et perpétuer sa descendance.

Or, le prix du travail, comme celui de toute marchandise, est égal à son coût de production. Donc, plus le travail devient répugnant, plus les salaires baissent. Bien plus, la somme de labeur s’accroît avec le développement du machinisme et de la division du travail, soit par l’augmentation des heures ouvrables, soit par l’augmentation du travail exigé dans un temps donné, l’accélération du mouvement des machines, etc.

L’industrie moderne a fait du petit atelier du maître artisan patriarcal la grande fabrique du capitalisme industriel. Des masses d’ouvriers, entassés dans la fabrique, sont organisés militairement. Simples soldats de l’industrie, ils sont placés sous la surveillance d’une hiérarchie complète de sous-officiers et d’officiers.

Ils ne sont pas seulement les esclaves de la classe bourgeoise, de l’Etat bourgeois, mais encore, chaque jour, à chaque heure, les esclaves de la machine, du contremaître et surtout du bourgeois fabricant lui-même. Plus ce despotisme proclame ouvertement le profit comme son but unique, plus il devient mesquin, odieux, exaspérant.

Moins le travail exige d’habileté et de force, c’est-à-dire plus l’industrie moderne progresse, et plus le travail des hommes est supplanté par celui des femmes et des enfants. Les distinctions d’âge et de sexe n’ont plus d’importance sociale pour la classe ouvrière. Il n’y a plus que des instruments de travail, dont le coût varie suivant l’âge et le sexe.

Une fois que l’ouvrier a subi l’exploitation du fabricant et qu’on lui a compté son salaire, il devient la proie d’autres membres de la bourgeoisie: du propriétaire, du détaillant, du prêteur sur gages, etc., etc.

Petits industriels, marchands et rentiers, artisans et paysans, tout l’échelon inférieur des classes moyennes de jadis, tombent dans le prolétariat; d’une part, parce que leurs faibles capitaux ne leur permettant pas d’employer les procédés de la grande industrie, ils succombent dans leur concurrence avec les grands capitalistes; d’autre part, parce que leur habileté technique est dépréciée par les méthodes nouvelles de production. De sorte que le prolétariat se recrute dans toutes les classes de la population.

Le prolétariat passe par différentes phases d’évolution. Sa lutte contre la bourgeoisie commence avec son existence même.

La lutte est engagée d’abord par des ouvriers isolés, ensuite par les ouvriers d’une même fabrique, enfin par les ouvriers d’une même branche d’industrie, dans une même localité, contre le bourgeois qui les exploite directement.

Ils ne dirigent pas seulement leurs attaques contre les rapports bourgeois de production: ils les dirigent contre les instruments de production eux-mêmes; ils détruisent les marchandises étrangères qui leur font concurrence, brisent les machines, brûlent les fabriques et s’efforcent de reconquérir la position perdue de l’artisan du moyen age.

A ce stade, le prolétariat forme une masse disséminée à travers le pays et émiettée par la concurrence. S’il arrive que les ouvriers se soutiennent par l’action de masse, ce n’est pas encore là le résultat de leur propre union, mais de celle de la bourgeoisie qui, pour atteindre ses fins politiques propres, doit mettre en branle le prolétariat tout entier, et qui possède encore provisoirement le pouvoir de le faire.

Durant cette phase, les prolétaires ne combattent donc pas leurs propres ennemis, mais les ennemis de leurs ennemis, c’est-à-dire les vestiges de la monarchie absolue, propriétaires fonciers, bourgeois non industriels, petits bourgeois. Tout le mouvement historique est de la sorte concentré entre les mains de la bourgeoisie; toute victoire remportée dans ces conditions est une victoire bourgeoise.

Or, le développement de l’industrie, non seulement accroît le nombre des prolétaires, mais les concentre en masses plus considérables; la force des prolétaires augmente et ils en prennent mieux conscience.

Les intérêts, les conditions d’existence au sein du prolétariat, s’égalisent de plus en plus, à mesure que la machine efface toute différence dans le travail et réduit presque partout le salaire à un niveau également bas.

Par suite de la concurrence croissante des bourgeois entre eux et des crises commerciales qui en résultent, les salaires deviennent de plus en plus instables; le perfectionnement constant et toujours plus rapide de la machine rend la condition de l’ouvrier de plus en plus précaire; les collisions individuelles entre l’ouvrier et le bourgeois prennent de plus en plus le caractère de collisions entre deux classes.

Les ouvriers commencent par former des coalitions contre les bourgeois pour la défense de leurs salaires. Ils vont jusqu’à constituer des associations permanentes pour être prêts en vue de rébellions éventuelles. Çà et là, la lutte éclate en émeute.

Parfois, les ouvriers triomphent; mais c’est un triomphe éphémère. Le résultat véritable de leurs luttes est moins le succès immédiat que l’union grandissante des travailleurs.

Cette union est facilitée par l’accroissement des moyens de communication qui sont créés par une grande industrie et qui permettent aux ouvriers de localités différentes de prendre contact. Or, il suffit de cette prise de contact pour centraliser les nombreuses luttes locales, qui partout revêtent le même caractère, en une lutte nationale, en une lutte de classes.

Mais toute lutte de classes est une lutte politique, et l’union que les bourgeois du moyen âge mettaient des siècles à établir avec leurs chemins vicinaux, les prolétaires modernes la réalisent en quelques années grâce aux chemins de fer.

Cette organisation du prolétariat en classe, et donc en parti politique, est sans cesse détruite de nouveau par la concurrence que se font les ouvriers entre eux. Mais elle renaît toujours, et toujours plus forte, plus ferme, plus puissante. Elle profite des dissensions intestines de la bourgeoisie pour l’obliger à reconnaître, sous forme de loi, certains intérêts de la classe ouvrière: par exemple le bill de dix heures en Angleterre.

En général, les collisions qui se produisent dans la vieille société favorisent de diverses manières le développement du prolétariat. La bourgeoisie vit dans un état de guerre perpétuel; d’abord contre l’aristocratie, puis contre ces fractions de la bourgeoisie même dont les intérêts entrent en conflit avec le progrès de l’industrie, et toujours, enfin, contre la bourgeoisie de tous les pays étrangers.

Dans toutes ces luttes, elle se voit obligée de faire appel au prolétariat, de revendiquer son aide et de l’entraîner ainsi dans le mouvement politique. Si bien que la bourgeoisie fournit aux prolétaires les éléments de sa propre éducation, c’est-à-dire des armes contre elle-même.

De plus, ainsi que nous venons de le voir, des fractions entières de la classe dominante sont, par le progrès de l’industrie, précipitées dans le prolétariat, ou sont menacées, tout au moins, dans leurs conditions d’existence. Elles aussi apportent au prolétariat une foule d’éléments d’éducation.

Enfin, au moment où la lutte des classes approche de l’heure décisive, le processus de décomposition de la classe dominante, de la vieille société tout entière, prend un caractère si violent et si âpre qu’une petite fraction de la classe dominante se détache de celle-ci et se rallie à la classe révolutionnaire, à la classe qui porte en elle l’avenir.

De même que, jadis, une partie de la noblesse passa à la bourgeoisie, de nos jours une partie de la bourgeoisie passe au prolétariat, et, notamment, cette partie des idéologues bourgeois qui se sont haussés jusqu’à la compréhension théorique de l’ensemble du mouvement historique.

De toutes les classes qui, à l’heure présente, s’opposent à la bourgeoisie, le prolétariat seul est une classe vraiment révolutionnaire. Les autres classes périclitent et périssent avec la grande industrie; le prolétariat, au contraire, en est le produit le plus authentique.

Les classes moyennes, petits fabricants, détaillants, artisans, paysans, tous combattent la bourgeoisie parce qu’elle est une menace pour leur existence en tant que classes moyennes. Elles ne sont donc pas révolutionnaires, mais conservatrices; bien plus, elles sont réactionnaires: elles cherchent à faire tourner à l’envers la roue de l’histoire.

Si elles sont révolutionnaires, c’est en considération de leur passage imminent au prolétariat: elles défendent alors leurs intérêts futurs et non leurs intérêts actuels; elles abandonnent leur propre point de vue pour se placer à celui du prolétariat.

Quant au lumpenprolétariat, ce produit passif de la pourriture des couches inférieures de la vieille société, il peut se trouver, çà et là, entraîné dans le mouvement par une révolution prolétarienne; cependant, ses conditions de vie le disposeront plutôt à se vendre à la réaction.

Les conditions d’existence de la vieille société sont déjà détruites dans les conditions d’existence du prolétariat. Le prolétaire est sans propriété; ses relations avec sa femme et ses enfants n’ont plus rien de commun avec celles de la famille bourgeoise; le travail industriel moderne, l’asservissement de l’ouvrier au capital, aussi bien en Angleterre qu’en France, en Amérique qu’en Allemagne, dépouillent le prolétaire de tout caractère national.

Les lois, la morale, la religion sont à ses yeux autant de préjugés bourgeois derrière lesquels se cachent autant d’intérêts bourgeois.

Toutes les classes qui, dans le passé, se sont emparées du pouvoir essayaient de consolider leur situation acquise en soumettant la société aux conditions qui leur assuraient leurs revenus propres.

Les prolétaires ne peuvent se rendre maîtres des forces productives sociales qu’en abolissant leur propre mode d’appropriation d’aujourd’hui et, par suite, tout le mode d’appropriation en vigueur jusqu’à nos jours. Les prolétaires n’ont rien à sauvegarder qui leur appartienne, ils ont à détruire toute garantie privée, toute sécurité privée antérieure.

Tous les mouvements historiques ont été, jusqu’ici, accomplis par des minorités ou au profit des minorités. Le mouvement prolétarien est le mouvement spontané de l’immense majorité au profit de l’immense majorité.

Le prolétariat, couche inférieure de la société actuelle, ne peut se soulever, se redresser, sans faire sauter toute la superstructure des couches qui constituent la société officielle.

La lutte du prolétariat contre la bourgeoisie, bien qu’elle ne soit pas, quant au fond, une lutte nationale, en revêt cependant tout d’abord la forme. Il va sans dire que le prolétariat de chaque pays doit en finir, avant tout, avec sa propre bourgeoisie.

En esquissant à grands traits les phases du développement du prolétariat, nous avons retracé l’histoire de la guerre civile, plus ou moins larvée, qui travaille la société actuelle jusqu’à l’heure où cette guerre éclate en révolution ouverte, et où le prolétariat fonde sa domination par le renversement violent de la bourgeoisie.

Toutes les sociétés antérieures, nous l’avons vu, ont reposé sur l’antagonisme de classes oppressives et de classes opprimées. Mais, pour opprimer une classe, il faut pouvoir lui garantir des conditions d’existence qui lui permettent, au moins, de vivre dans la servitude.

Le serf, en plein servage, est parvenu a devenir membre d’une commune, de même que le petit-bourgeois s’est élevé au rang de bourgeois, sous le joug de l’absolutisme féodal.

L’ouvrier moderne au contraire, loin de s’élever avec le progrès de l’industrie, descend toujours plus bas, au-dessous même des conditions de vie de sa propre classe. Le travailleur devient un pauvre, et le paupérisme s’accroît plus rapidement encore que la population et la richesse.

Il est donc manifeste que la bourgeoisie est incapable de remplir plus longtemps son rôle de classe dirigeante et d’imposer à la société, comme loi régulatrice, les conditions d’existence de sa classe. Elle ne peut plus régner, parce qu’elle est incapable d’assurer l’existence de son esclave dans le cadre de son esclavage, parce qu’elle est obligée de le laisser déchoir au point de devoir le nourrir au lieu de se faire nourrir par lui. La société ne peut plus vivre sous sa domination, ce qui revient à dire que l’existence de la bourgeoisie n’est plus compatible avec celle de la société.

L’existence et la domination de la classe bourgeoise ont pour condition essentielle l’accumulation de la richesse aux mains des particuliers, la formation et l’accroissement du Capital; la condition d’existence du capital, c’est le salariat. Le salariat repose exclusivement sur la concurrence des ouvriers entre eux.

Le progrès de l’ industrie, dont la bourgeoisie est l’agent sans volonté propre et sans résistance, substitue à l’isolement des ouvriers résultant de leur concurrence, leur union révolutionnaire par l’association.

Ainsi, le développement de la grande industrie sape, sous les pieds de la bourgeoisie, le terrain même sur lequel elle a établi son système de production et d’appropriation. Avant tout, la bourgeoisie produit ses propres fossoyeurs. Sa chute et la victoire du prolétariat sont également inévitables.


  • attack: To attack is to try to fight or to hurt.
  • finally: If something happens finally, it happens after a longtime or at the end.
  • lot: A lot means a large number or amount of people, animals, things, etc.
  • middle: The middle of something is the center or halfway point.
  • moment: A moment is a second or a very short time.
  • moment: A moment is a second or a very short time.
  • create: To create means to make something new.
  • kill: To kill someone or something is to make them die.
  • among: If you are among certain things, they are all around you.
  • chart: A chart is a list of information.
  • comprehend: To comprehend something is to understand it.
  • ever: Ever means at any time.
  • instead: Instead means in place of.
  • solve: To solve something is to find an answer to it.
  • suddenly: If something happens suddenly, it happens quickly and unexpectedly.
  • view: To view is to look at something.
  • appropriate: When a thing is appropriate, it is right or normal.
  • represent: To represent is to speak or act for a person or group.
  • continue: To continue something is to keep doing it.
  • result: A result is something that happens because of something else.
  • roll: To roll is to move by turning over and over.
  • since: Since is used to talk about a past event still happening now.
  • advantage: An advantage is something that helps you.
  • cause: To cause is to make something happen.
  • face: If you face a problem, you deal with it.
  • individual: An individual is one person.
  • pet: A pet is an animal that lives with people.
  • return: To return is to go back to a place.
  • upset: To be upset is to be unhappy about something.
  • claim: To claim means to say that something is true.
  • condition: The condition of someone or something is the state that they are in.
  • force: Force is a person’s strength or power.
  • harm: Harm is hurt or problems caused to someone or something.
  • lay: To lay means to put or place in a horizontal or flat position.
  • sense: To sense something is to know about it without being told.
  • sudden: When something is sudden, it happens very quickly.
  • therefore: Therefore means for this reason.
  • arrange: To arrange things is to put them in the right place.
  • hang: To hang something is to keep it above the ground.
  • necessary: If something is necessary, you must do it.
  • require: To require something is to say that it is necessary.
  • single: If something is single, then there is only one.
  • against: To be against something is to be touching it or opposed to it.
  • discover: To discover something is to find it for the first time.
  • fix: To fix something is to make it work.
  • prevent: To prevent something is to stop it from happening.
  • save: To save something is to keep it from being hurt.
  • step: To step is to walk.
  • still: Still is used when you say that a situation keeps going on.
  • throw: To throw something is to use your hand to make it go through the air.
  • certain: If you are certain about something, you know it is true.
  • chance: A chance is an opportunity to do something.
  • essential: If something is essential, it is very important and necessary.
  • far: If something is far, it is not close.
  • image: The image of something is a picture of it.
  • immediate: If something is immediate, it happens quickly.
  • remain: To remain somewhere is to stay there.
  • rest: To rest is to stop being active while the body gets back its strength.
  • separate: If two things are separate, they are not together.
  • compete: To compete is to try to be better than someone.
  • either: Either is used with or to say there are two or more possibilities.
  • ground: The ground is the top part of the Earth that we walk on.
  • introduce: To introduce someone or something is to say who they are.
  • prepare: To prepare is to get ready for something.
  • alone: If someone is alone, they are not with another person.
  • article: An article is a story in a newspaper or magazine.
  • compare: To compare means to say how two things are the same and different.
  • material: A material is what is used to make something.
  • meal: A meal is a time when food is eaten like breakfast, lunch, or dinner.
  • method: A method is the way to do something.
  • thin: If someone or something is thin, they are not fat.
  • demand: To demand something is to say strongly that you want it.
  • equal: To be equal is to be the same.
  • feed: To feed is to give food.
  • hole: A hole is an opening in something.
  • increase: To increase something is to make it larger or more.
  • lord: Long ago, a lord was a man in charge of a town.
  • owe: To owe is to have to pay or give back something received from another.
  • position: A position is the way something is placed.
  • raise: To raise something is to lift it up.
  • spot: A spot is a place where something happens.
  • whole: Whole means all of something.
  • control: To control something is to make it do what you want.
  • direct: If something is direct, it goes straight between two places.
  • local: If something is local, it is nearby.
  • poet: A poet is a person who writes poems.
  • store: A store is a place where you can buy things.
  • consume: To consume something means to eat or drink it.
  • race: A race is a contest to see who is the fastest.
  • respond: To respond is to give an answer to what someone else said.
  • wonder: To wonder is to ask yourself questions or have a need to know.
  • yet: Yet is used to say something has not happened up to now.
  • ancient: If something is ancient, it is very old.
  • century: A century is one hundred years.
  • exist: To exist is to be real.
  • hidden: Hidden means to be not easily noticed or too hard to find.
  • officer: An officer is a leader in the army.
  • process: A process is the steps to take to do something.
  • wealth: Wealth is a large amount of money.
  • disappear: To disappear means to go away or not be seen.
  • fair: Fair describes treating someone in a way that is reasonable or right.
  • level: A level is a point on a scale that measures something.
  • lone: If someone or something is lone, they are the only one of that kind.
  • solution: A solution is a way to solve a problem.
  • whether: You use whether when you must choose between two things.
  • crowd: A crowd is a large group of people.
  • depend: To depend on someone or something is to need them.
  • exact: If something is exact, it is just the right amount.
  • fresh: If something is fresh, it is new.
  • price: The price of something is how much it costs.
  • product: A product is something that is made.
  • property: Property is something that someone owns.
  • tool: A tool is something that helps you do a task.
  • foreign: If something is foreign, it is from a different country.
  • however: However means despite or not being influenced by something.
  • lawyer: A lawyer works with the law and represents people in court.
  • mention: To mention something is to talk about it.
  • social: If something is social, it is about many people in a community.
  • achieve: To achieve something is to successfully do it after trying hard.
  • already: If something happens already, it happens before a certain time.
  • bit: A bit is a small amount of something.
  • consider: To consider something means to think about it.
  • destroy: To destroy means to damage something so badly that it cannot be used.
  • lie: To lie is to say or write something untrue to deceive someone.
  • opinion: An opinion is a thought about a person or a thing.
  • real: If something is real, it actually exists.
  • war: A war is a big fight between two groups of people.
  • worth: If something is worth an amount of money, it costs that amount.
  • appear: To appear is to seem.
  • base: The base is the bottom of something.
  • later: Later means after the present, expected, or usual time.
  • pain: Pain is the feeling that you have when you are hurt.
  • various: If something is various, there are many types of it.
  • contact: To contact someone is to speak or write to them.
  • manage: To manage something means to control or be in charge of it.
  • receive: To receive something is to get it.
  • set: To set something is to put it somewhere.
  • advance: To advance is to go forward.
  • behind: Behind means to be at the back of something.
  • course: A course is a class in school.
  • lower: To lower something is to make it go down.
  • member: A member is a person who is part of a group.
  • mental: If something is mental, it has to do with your mind.
  • event: An event is something that happens, especially something important.
  • fit: If something fits, it is small enough orthe right size to go there.
  • public: If something is public, it is meant for everyone to use.
  • unite: To unite is to get together to do something.
  • factory: A factory is a building where things are made or put together.
  • feature: A feature is an important part of something.
  • involve: To involve means to be actively taking part in something.
  • period: A period is an amount of time when something happens.
  • produce: To produce something is to make or grow it.
  • range: A range is a number or a set of similar things.
  • final: If something is final, it is the last part.
  • further: Further is used to say something is from a distance or time.
  • prove: To prove something is to show that it is true.
  • react: To react is to act in a certain way because of something that happened.
  • society: Society is people and the way that they live.
  • desert: The desert is an area of land without many plants or water.
  • journey: A journey is a long trip.
  • trip: A trip is a journey to a certain place.
  • value: If something has value, it is worth a lot of money.
  • instrument: An instrument is something designed to do a certain task like music.
  • list: A list is a record of information printed with an item on each line.
  • own: To own something means to have it. That thing belongs to you.
  • stage: A stage is a place where actors or musicians act or sing.
  • within: You use within to say that something is inside another thing.
  • competition: A competition is a contest to see who is the best at something.
  • gain: If you gain something, you get more of it.
  • major: If something is major, it is big or important.
  • mean: Mean describes someone who is unkind or cruel.
  • progress: Progress is the act of getting closer to doing or finishing something.
  • skill: A skill is the knowledge and ability that allows you to do something well.
  • strength: Strength is the physical power that you have.
  • above: If something is above, it is at a higher level than something else.
  • common: If something is common, it happens often or there is much of it.
  • cost: To cost is to require expenditure or payment.
  • different: Different describes someone or something that is not the same as others.
  • independent: If something is independent, it is not controlled by something else.
  • master: A master is a person who is very good at something.
  • proper: If something is proper, it is right.
  • section: A section is a part of something larger.
  • surface: The surface of something is the top part or outside of it.


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